The Indo-Pak War of 1965 stands as a pivotal chapter in the history of the subcontinent, reshaping the geopolitical landscape of India and Pakistan. Among its defining moments was the capture of the Haji Pir Pass on August 28, 1965—a strategic triumph for India that marked a turning point in the conflict. Despite the eventual ceasefire on September 23, mandated by the United Nations, this day is remembered as a victory for India, symbolizing the unyielding spirit and resilience of its armed forces.

The seeds of the 1965 conflict were sown earlier that year with disputes over the Rann of Kutch, a salt marsh region along the India-Pakistan border. Beginning in April, intermittent skirmishes and attacks erupted as Pakistan sought to annex the territory under Indian control. By June, a ceasefire was brokered, and a tribunal was established with British intervention. However, Pakistan’s perceived success in this skirmish, coupled with India’s recent losses in the 1962 Indo-China War, emboldened Pakistani military officials to believe that they could successfully seize Jammu and Kashmir.

In August 1965, Pakistan launched a clandestine operation named Operation Gibraltar, aimed at infiltrating Jammu and Kashmir to incite rebellion against Indian rule. The plan failed, as Indian forces swiftly retaliated, escalating the conflict into a full-scale war by mid-August. Initially, the battles were concentrated in Kashmir and Punjab. By the end of August, both nations appeared evenly matched, with Pakistan controlling regions like Tithwal, Uri, and Poonch, while India recaptured the strategically vital Haji Pir Pass.

The war further escalated with an air battle over Punjab and Pakistan’s launch of Operation Grand Slam on September 1, targeting Akhnoor in Jammu. This led to the fierce Battle of Chamb, which marked a temporary success for Pakistan. However, on September 6, Indian forces crossed the International Border in the west, officially broadening the conflict. Indian troops launched a three-pronged attack toward Lahore, signaling their determination to counter Pakistan’s aggression.

The Indian offensive extended to Sialkot, culminating in the Battle of Chawinda, while Pakistani forces advanced toward Khem Karan in Punjab. The iconic Battle of Asal Uttar, fought between September 8 and 10 in Khem Karan, turned the tide of the war. Often hailed as the greatest tank battle since World War II, this confrontation witnessed Indian troops decisively halting Pakistan’s armored assault, dealing a significant blow to its military aspirations.

Hostilities also unfolded in Rajasthan, where Pakistani forces captured the fort of Kishangarh on September 8. Despite localized successes on both sides, the war increasingly leaned toward a stalemate as the weeks wore on.

The escalating conflict drew the attention of global powers, with both the Soviet Union and the United States urging India and Pakistan to negotiate peace. Facing heavy casualties, dwindling ammunition, and mounting international pressure, Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani President Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Agreement, bringing the war to a formal end on September 23.

The war, though initially driven by territorial ambitions, yielded no substantial gains for either side. Instead, it left a trail of devastation, with India suffering the loss of approximately 3,000 soldiers, 150 tanks, and nearly 70 aircraft. Pakistan faced similar, if not greater, losses. Ultimately, the war underscored the futility of armed conflict, where territorial aspirations were overshadowed by human tragedy.

While the war did not result in decisive territorial gains, it remains a testament to the unmatched courage and sacrifice of Indian soldiers. These brave men stood steadfast in the face of adversity, fighting not for personal glory but for the honor of their nation. They scaled treacherous peaks, manned tanks with unflinching resolve, and laid down their lives, shouting war cries that still echo in the annals of history.

We commemorate this war not for its outcomes but to honor the valor and selflessness of those who defended the nation. Their legacy is etched in the spirit of patriotism, a beacon of inspiration for generations to come. Though time may pass, their sacrifices will remain eternal, a reminder of the price paid for the sovereignty and dignity of our country.

Background

Since the partition of 1947, Pakistan and India have remained at odds over numerous issues, with the Kashmir conflict being the most prominent. However, other disputes also simmered beneath the surface, including the contention over the Rann of Kutch, a desolate stretch of land in Gujarat, India. The dispute over this barren region first emerged in 1956 but ended with India regaining control of the area.

In January 1965, tensions reignited when Pakistani patrols began entering Indian-controlled territory in the Rann of Kutch. This led to a series of escalating incidents, culminating in cross-border attacks by both nations on April 8, 1965. What initially involved local border police soon escalated into intermittent skirmishes between the armed forces of both countries. By June 1965, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson intervened and successfully brokered a ceasefire. A tribunal was established to resolve the matter, and its 1968 verdict awarded Pakistan 350 square miles (910 km²) of the Rann of Kutch—far less than its initial claim of 3,500 square miles (9,100 km²).

Amid these developments, Pakistan found a strategic ally in China, which had recently defeated India in the 1962 Indo-Sino War. The Indian Army, still recovering from the morale-shattering defeat, was grappling with outdated World War II-era equipment. In contrast, Pakistan had significantly modernized its arsenal, receiving substantial military aid from the United States. This included 100 F-86 Sabre jets, one squadron of F-104 Starfighters, 30 B-57 bombers, four C-130 transport aircraft, and other advanced weaponry. With five divisions of the Pakistani Army fully equipped and a total of 765 tanks (compared to India’s 720), Pakistan felt emboldened.

Buoyed by this newfound military strength, Pakistani President General Ayub Khan saw an opportunity to resolve the Kashmir dispute. Convinced that India would be unable to withstand a swift military campaign, Pakistan believed it could achieve a decisive victory in the disputed region. It also hoped to ignite a resistance movement within Kashmir, leveraging the region’s Muslim-majority population.

To this end, Pakistan launched a covert infiltration operation in August 1965, codenamed Operation Gibraltar. The plan involved sending trained infiltrators into Indian-administered Kashmir to incite rebellion and destabilize Indian control. However, the operation quickly unraveled. Local Kashmiris reported the presence of Pakistani infiltrators to Indian authorities, leading to their discovery and thwarting the operation. Operation Gibraltar ended in failure, marking the beginning of a larger escalation between the two nations.

The War

On 5 August 1965, a substantial number of Pakistani soldiers clandestinely crossed the Line of Control (LoC) into Indian-administered Kashmir. Disguised as local Kashmiris, their mission was to infiltrate and incite rebellion against Indian rule. This operation, later termed Operation Gibraltar, involved between 26,000 and 33,000 personnel, according to various accounts. However, their movements aroused suspicion among the Kashmiri locals, many of whom tipped off Indian authorities. Responding to these reports, the Indian Army crossed the ceasefire line on 15 August, initiating a series of engagements.

Initially, the Indian Army achieved significant victories. After a prolonged artillery barrage, they captured three critical mountain positions. However, by the end of August, the situation had become a deadlock. Pakistan made territorial gains in areas like Tithwal, Uri, and Poonch, while India managed to secure the Haji Pir Pass, located 8 km inside Pakistan-administered Kashmir. This high-altitude pass was of immense strategic importance, as it provided India a tactical advantage in the region.

On 1 September 1965, Pakistan launched Operation Grand Slam, a massive counteroffensive targeting the town of Akhnoor in the Jammu region. Akhnoor was a vital logistical hub for Indian forces, and its capture would have severed key supply lines to Indian troops stationed in Kashmir. The Pakistani military, under the leadership of General Ayub Khan, was confident of success. Khan believed that a few decisive blows would break “Hindu morale.”

At 3:30 a.m., Pakistan unleashed a massive artillery bombardment in the Chhamb sector, catching Indian forces off-guard. Using an overwhelming force of infantry and technologically superior tanks, Pakistan initially gained ground, inflicting heavy losses on Indian forces. However, India retaliated by deploying its Air Force, which managed to blunt the Pakistani advance. On the following day, the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) launched its own airstrikes, targeting Indian positions in both Kashmir and Punjab.

India, in a strategic move to ease pressure in Kashmir, opened a new front by crossing into Pakistani territory in Punjab. This forced Pakistan to divert its troops from Operation Grand Slam, ultimately leading to its failure. Despite their initial success, the Pakistani forces were unable to capture Akhnoor, marking a turning point in the conflict.

In the Kargil sector, Pakistan had taken control of key high-altitude positions that overlooked the Srinagar-Leh highway, a lifeline for Indian forces in Ladakh. However, the Indian Army launched an intense anti-infiltration operation, successfully driving Pakistani forces out of the area by the end of August. Kargil’s significance in the war highlighted the challenges of fighting in rugged mountainous terrain.

On 6 September 1965, the war escalated dramatically as India crossed the International Border on the Western Front. This marked the official beginning of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. India’s 15th Infantry Division, commanded by Major General Prasad, advanced towards Lahore but faced fierce resistance near the Icchogil Canal (BRB Canal), which served as Pakistan’s de facto border defense. The division faced a major counterattack, during which Prasad’s convoy was ambushed, forcing him to abandon his vehicle.

Destroyed or abandoned Pakistani Patton and Sherman tanks on display near Khem Karan. About 97 Pakistani tanks were either destroyed or captured by India during the Battle of Asal Uttar.

India’s second attempt to cross the Icchogil Canal succeeded near the village of Barki, just east of Lahore, bringing Indian forces within striking distance of Lahore International Airport. This prompted the United States to request a temporary ceasefire to evacuate its citizens from Lahore. Despite these advances, Pakistan launched a counteroffensive and captured Khem Karan, diverting Indian forces to defend nearby areas like Bedian and adjacent villages.

Pakistan’s 1st Armoured Division, equipped with US-made Patton tanks, launched an offensive towards Khem Karan, aiming to capture Amritsar and reach the Beas River, threatening Indian supply lines. However, the Indian 4th Mountain Division decisively repelled the attack in the Battle of Asal Uttar. The Pakistani division suffered devastating losses, with 97 tanks destroyed or abandoned, compared to India’s 32 tanks. The area became known as Patton Nagar (Patton Town) due to the sheer number of Pakistani tanks left behind.

Hostilities spread to the Rajasthan sector on 8 September 1965. Pakistan’s Desert Force and the Hur militia, with their expertise in desert survival, launched skirmishes and harassed Indian forces along the Line of Control. They also captured several Indian villages, including Kishangarh Fort, after days of intense fighting. Despite their resilience, Indian forces were unable to recapture the strategic village of Munabao, which fell to Pakistan on 10 September.

India’s 1st Armoured Division, described as the “pride of the Indian Army,” launched an ambitious offensive towards Sialkot. The division split into two prongs, but it was met by Pakistan’s 6th Armoured Division in the fierce Battle of Chawinda, one of the largest tank battles since World War II. India suffered heavy losses, with nearly 100 tanks destroyed, forcing its forces to retreat. Pakistan capitalized on this success with Operation Windup, further pushing Indian forces back.

Meanwhile, Pakistan’s attempt to use its 1st Armoured Division to capture Amritsar and Jalandhar failed, as the division was destroyed near Khem Karan during the Battle of Asal Uttar.

By mid-September, the war had reached a stalemate, with both nations holding territories of the other. India occupied 1,920 km² (758.9 square miles) of Pakistani territory, primarily in Sialkot, Lahore, and Kashmir sectors, while Pakistan controlled 550 km² (210 square miles) of Indian land, mostly in Rajasthan’s deserts and the Chhamb sector in Kashmir.

The war resulted in heavy casualties on both sides, with India losing 3,000 soldiers and Pakistan suffering 3,800 battlefield deaths. The territorial exchanges remained a contentious point, with some analysts supporting Pakistan’s claim of occupying up to 1,600 square miles of Indian territory, primarily in the desert region.

Aerial warfare

On 5 August 1965, a substantial number of Pakistani soldiers clandestinely crossed the Line of Control (LoC) into Indian-administered Kashmir. Disguised as local Kashmiris, their mission was to infiltrate and incite rebellion against Indian rule. This operation, later termed Operation Gibraltar, involved between 26,000 and 33,000 personnel, according to various accounts. However, their movements aroused suspicion among the Kashmiri locals, many of whom tipped off Indian authorities. Responding to these reports, the Indian Army crossed the ceasefire line on 15 August, initiating a series of engagements.

Initially, the Indian Army achieved significant victories. After a prolonged artillery barrage, they captured three critical mountain positions. However, by the end of August, the situation had become a deadlock. Pakistan made territorial gains in areas like Tithwal, Uri, and Poonch, while India managed to secure the Haji Pir Pass, located 8 km inside Pakistan-administered Kashmir. This high-altitude pass was of immense strategic importance, as it provided India a tactical advantage in the region.

On 1 September 1965, Pakistan launched Operation Grand Slam, a massive counteroffensive targeting the town of Akhnoor in the Jammu region. Akhnoor was a vital logistical hub for Indian forces, and its capture would have severed key supply lines to Indian troops stationed in Kashmir. The Pakistani military, under the leadership of General Ayub Khan, was confident of success. Khan believed that a few decisive blows would break “Hindu morale.”

At 3:30 a.m., Pakistan unleashed a massive artillery bombardment in the Chhamb sector, catching Indian forces off-guard. Using an overwhelming force of infantry and technologically superior tanks, Pakistan initially gained ground, inflicting heavy losses on Indian forces. However, India retaliated by deploying its Air Force, which managed to blunt the Pakistani advance. On the following day, the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) launched its own airstrikes, targeting Indian positions in both Kashmir and Punjab.

India, in a strategic move to ease pressure in Kashmir, opened a new front by crossing into Pakistani territory in Punjab. This forced Pakistan to divert its troops from Operation Grand Slam, ultimately leading to its failure. Despite their initial success, the Pakistani forces were unable to capture Akhnoor, marking a turning point in the conflict.

In the Kargil sector, Pakistan had taken control of key high-altitude positions that overlooked the Srinagar-Leh highway, a lifeline for Indian forces in Ladakh. However, the Indian Army launched an intense anti-infiltration operation, successfully driving Pakistani forces out of the area by the end of August. Kargil’s significance in the war highlighted the challenges of fighting in rugged mountainous terrain.

On 6 September 1965, the war escalated dramatically as India crossed the International Border on the Western Front. This marked the official beginning of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. India’s 15th Infantry Division, commanded by Major General Prasad, advanced towards Lahore but faced fierce resistance near the Icchogil Canal (BRB Canal), which served as Pakistan’s de facto border defense. The division faced a major counterattack, during which Prasad’s convoy was ambushed, forcing him to abandon his vehicle.

The 1965 Indo-Pakistani War marked the first large-scale air combat between the Indian Air Force (IAF) and the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) since the independence of both nations. While the two forces had previously encountered each other during the First Kashmir War in the late 1940s, those engagements were relatively limited compared to the intense aerial battles of 1965.

The IAF’s fleet consisted of a mix of British, Soviet, and Indian-manufactured aircraft, including Hawker Hunters, Folland Gnats, de Havilland Vampires, English Electric Canberras, and a squadron of MiG-21s. The PAF, on the other hand, operated primarily American-made aircraft, with a fighter force comprising F-86F Sabres, F-104 Starfighters, and B-57 Canberras. The PAF claimed to be heavily outnumbered, with a 5:1 disadvantage compared to the IAF.

The American-origin aircraft flown by the PAF were generally regarded as more advanced, with the F-104 Starfighter being the fastest aircraft in the region. However, in practice, it proved less effective than the more agile and slower IAF Folland Gnats, which earned the nickname “Sabre Slayer” for their success in dogfights against the PAF’s F-86 Sabres. Despite its speed, the Starfighter was primarily used to disrupt ongoing battles rather than engage in sustained dogfights. For instance, one Starfighter broke off a dogfight between Sabres and Gnats, forcing the Indian fighters to disengage. During the conflict, a notable incident occurred when an IAF Gnat, piloted by Squadron Leader Brij Pal Singh Sikand, landed at an abandoned Pakistani airstrip at Pasrur and was captured by Pakistani forces.

Both sides made contradictory claims about combat losses, and few independent sources have verified these figures. The PAF claimed to have shot down 104 IAF aircraft while losing 19 of its own, whereas the IAF reported shooting down 73 PAF aircraft while losing 59.

Despite Pakistani claims, Indian sources have highlighted that Pakistan sought to acquire additional aircraft from countries such as Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Turkey, and China within days of the war’s onset, suggesting significant losses. Neutral assessments estimate that the PAF lost around 20 aircraft, while the IAF lost between 60 and 75 aircraft. Pakistan depleted approximately 17% of its frontline strength, while India’s losses amounted to less than 10%. Analysts have suggested that if the war had continued for another three weeks, Pakistani losses could have risen to 33%, compared to 15% for India.

Neither side achieved air superiority during the war. The PAF could not prevent IAF reconnaissance and bombing missions over Pakistani territory, while the IAF failed to dominate the skies decisively. According to aviation historian Kenneth Werrell, the PAF performed well, potentially holding an edge due to its experience with the F-86 Sabres and its well-trained pilots. Despite being outnumbered, the PAF benefited from a decade of operational experience with its aircraft, including pilots with extensive flight hours.

One of the most notable and controversial episodes of the air war was the performance of PAF pilot MM Alam, who claimed to have downed five Indian aircraft in under a minute, becoming the first recognized flying ace since the Korean War. However, this claim remains unverified and is disputed by both Indian sources and some PAF officials.

The air war of 1965 ended in a stalemate, with neither side achieving complete dominance. The IAF’s vast numerical advantage was offset by the PAF’s better-prepared pilots and more advanced aircraft in certain categories. Both forces sustained significant losses, but the PAF demonstrated remarkable resilience against a much larger adversary. While the war did not yield a clear victor in the skies, it underscored the evolving dynamics of air power in South Asia.

Tank battles

Tanks of 18th Cavalry (Indian Army) on the move during the 1965 Indo-Pak War.

The 1965 Indo-Pakistani War featured some of the largest tank battles since World War II, with both nations deploying significant armored forces. The war saw tank engagements on an unprecedented scale in the South Asian theater, particularly in the Punjab region, which became the stage for some of the fiercest clashes between Indian and Pakistani armored divisions.

At the start of the war, Pakistan enjoyed both a numerical and qualitative advantage in armor. The Pakistani Army’s armored corps was heavily equipped with American-made tanks, including the formidable Patton M-47 and M-48 tanks, supported by a variety of other vehicles such as M4 Shermans (many re-armed with 76 mm guns), M24 Chaffee light tanks, and M36 Jackson tank destroyers, which were armed with powerful 90 mm guns. Pakistan fielded a total of 15 armored cavalry regiments, each comprising approximately 45 tanks, distributed among its 1st and 6th Armored Divisions. The 6th Armored Division was still being formed at the time but was quickly mobilized into action.

The Indian Army’s tank fleet, while numerically strong, was composed of a mix of older and modern designs. The bulk of its force consisted of M4 Sherman tanks, some of which had been upgraded with French-made CN 75 50 high-velocity guns to enhance their firepower, though others still retained the outdated 75 mm M3 L/40 gun. India also fielded British-designed Centurion Mk 7 tanks, equipped with the formidable 105 mm Royal Ordnance L7 gun, which proved to be highly effective in combat. Additionally, India deployed lighter vehicles such as the AMX-13, PT-76 amphibious tanks, and M3 Stuart light tanks. Despite having older and less sophisticated equipment overall, Indian forces demonstrated remarkable resilience and tactical ingenuity on the battlefield.

Pakistan also held an edge in artillery, with its modern, long-range guns capable of outranging much of the Indian artillery. However, the superior firepower of Indian Centurions and their tactical deployment in key battles would tilt the scales in India’s favor during several engagements.

One of the most significant tank battles of the war occurred at Asal Uttar, where Pakistan’s 1st Armored Division, spearheaded by its Patton tanks, launched a major counteroffensive aimed at capturing the strategic town of Khem Karan and threatening Amritsar. The Indian forces, under the 4th Mountain Division and the 2nd Armored Brigade, skillfully prepared defenses, including flooding the battlefield by breaching the Madhupur Canal. The waterlogged terrain immobilized the advancing Pakistani tanks and rendered them vulnerable to Indian anti-tank weapons and counterattacks by Centurions and Shermans.

In this encounter, Pakistan suffered heavy losses, with over 100 Patton tanks destroyed or abandoned, earning the battlefield the moniker “Patton Nagar” (Patton Graveyard). Despite their numerical and technological superiority, the poorly executed offensive and effective Indian defense led to the defeat of Pakistan’s 1st Armored Division, marking a turning point in the war.

Following the setback at Asal Uttar, Pakistan regrouped and shifted its focus to the Chawinda sector near Sialkot. The Indian Army, led by the 1st Armored Division, aimed to capture Chawinda as part of its larger offensive in the Lahore-Sialkot sector. However, the newly formed 6th Armored Division of the Pakistani Army, supported by the legendary 25th Cavalry Regiment, mounted a fierce defense.

The battle saw intense armored clashes, with Pakistan claiming to have destroyed 120 Indian tanks while losing only 44 of its own. Indian sources, however, later stated that their losses at Chawinda were limited to 29 tanks. Despite these discrepancies, the Battle of Chawinda ended in a stalemate, as the Indian offensive was halted, and both sides suffered substantial casualties.

Both armies demonstrated tactical proficiency in defensive operations during the war. At Asal Uttar, India’s smaller 2nd Armored Brigade successfully defended against a much larger Pakistani force, while at Chawinda, Pakistan’s 25th Cavalry delayed and blunted India’s 1st Armored Division.

The 1965 war revealed significant shortcomings in the offensive use of armored formations by both sides. Pakistan’s 1st Armored Division’s frontal charge at Asal Uttar into prepared defenses proved costly and ineffective. Similarly, India’s 1st Armored Division faced difficulties in executing its offensive at Chawinda, partly due to logistical challenges and a lack of coordination.

However, both armies excelled in defensive tactics with smaller forces. India’s use of terrain and defensive preparations at Asal Uttar played a critical role in neutralizing Pakistan’s superior tanks. On the other hand, Pakistan’s smaller units, such as the 25th Cavalry, demonstrated remarkable resilience and tactical ingenuity in defending Chawinda against a numerically superior Indian force.

The tank battles of 1965 left a lasting impact on the military strategies of both nations. While Pakistan initially seemed to have the upper hand with its more modern and numerous armored vehicles, its losses—particularly at Asal Uttar—exposed the limitations of its strategy and the over-reliance on American equipment. By the end of the war, Pakistan had lost a significant portion of its frontline armor, including many Pattons, while India retained a larger portion of its tank strength.

Independent analyses suggest that Pakistan’s tank losses ranged from 200–300 vehicles, while India’s losses were approximately 150–200. Although neither side achieved a decisive breakthrough, the tank battles of 1965 underscored the importance of combined arms tactics, effective planning, and logistical support in modern armored warfare.

The 1965 war also highlighted the strategic and symbolic importance of tank warfare, as both nations sought to demonstrate their military prowess in one of the largest armored confrontations of the post-World War II era.